To delver an effective coaching session or lesson, there is a need for good understanding of how learning takes place.
There are a number of different theories that seek to explain how we learn, the different influences and roles of reinforcement, modelling and cognitive processes.
We learn through a combination of the different theories, and therefore it is vital for you to remember the different theories and ways in which you and we learn based on our previous experiences.
There are a number of different theories that seek to explain how we learn, the different influences and roles of reinforcement, modelling and cognitive processes.
We learn through a combination of the different theories, and therefore it is vital for you to remember the different theories and ways in which you and we learn based on our previous experiences.
Operant conditioning
This is an example of associationist or connectionist view of learning.
Skinner 1964 identified that conditioning was more effective through the manipulation of behaviour towards a stimulus rather than through modification of the stimulus (Honeybourne and Powell 2016) A rat was placed in a box by Skinner, and when the rat hit a lever a food pellet was released. The rat learnt that hitting the lever would produce the food (through trial and error). Operant condition is related to the action being shaped and reinforced (the rat hitting the lever and being reinforced that this is the correct action, and rewarded with the food. For operant conditioning to take place, there needs to be reinforcement. - for example you go to work, and at the end of the week/month you receive your pay (reward). If you gained no reward you would be unlikely to continue going. If you do something correct, and get rewarded you are more likely to repeat that action. Learning is quicker if the reward is given on each occasion of the correct response. When learning to swim or do gymnastics you are rewarded for completing a set of actions or tasks with badges - this is operant conditioning. However some young athletes may lose focus of the skill that they are developing and be solely focused on gaining the reward. This can be an issue, as the performer may no longer enjoy the sport, but they just enjoy the rewards. The modification of the behaviour takes place, as the performer looks for the reinforcement (through trial and error). Partial reinforcement has a long term impact on the performer. Reinforcement can be rewards from an adult, verbal praise from a coach or congratulations from a team mate. You may be rewarded with certificates, medals, high fives or words! Learning is faster if a reward is given on each and every occasion. |
Thorndike's laws
These laws are linked to operant conditioning. How fully the S-R bond is developed depends on the extent that the laws are applied.
Throndikes theory was developed on the strengthening the S-R bond. Thorndikes Laws were developed.
Law of exercise:
Repetition or rehearsal of the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired response occurs, reinforcement is necessary.
Example - A gymnast practicing a floor routine repeatedly, then the stimulus response bonds are repeated/exercised. The more times a skill is practices the more likely a response will be bonded to a particular stimulus.
Law of effect:
Following a response with a satisfier, the S-R bond becomes strengthened.
Following a response with an annoyer, the S-R bond becomes weakened.
The more pleasant an outcome is, the more likely that the performer will repeat the action.
Example -
A junior netballer may attempt a bounce pass, if this is successful then the effect is deemed to be successful and it is more likely that the player will perform the skill successfully again.
If the player is unsuccessful and the effect is failure - the ball may not reach the opponent or be intercepted, then the effect is one that is avoided.
Law of readiness:
The performer must be able to complete the task both physically and mentally.
Example -
A tennis player has been taught and coached to perform only one type of serve, the service may become predictable and demotivated by inhibition. Practice may be stopped for a period of time, or new tactics/techniques could be discussed and practiced later. New targets can be set and practice resumed.
Throndikes theory was developed on the strengthening the S-R bond. Thorndikes Laws were developed.
Law of exercise:
Repetition or rehearsal of the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired response occurs, reinforcement is necessary.
Example - A gymnast practicing a floor routine repeatedly, then the stimulus response bonds are repeated/exercised. The more times a skill is practices the more likely a response will be bonded to a particular stimulus.
Law of effect:
Following a response with a satisfier, the S-R bond becomes strengthened.
Following a response with an annoyer, the S-R bond becomes weakened.
The more pleasant an outcome is, the more likely that the performer will repeat the action.
Example -
A junior netballer may attempt a bounce pass, if this is successful then the effect is deemed to be successful and it is more likely that the player will perform the skill successfully again.
If the player is unsuccessful and the effect is failure - the ball may not reach the opponent or be intercepted, then the effect is one that is avoided.
Law of readiness:
The performer must be able to complete the task both physically and mentally.
Example -
A tennis player has been taught and coached to perform only one type of serve, the service may become predictable and demotivated by inhibition. Practice may be stopped for a period of time, or new tactics/techniques could be discussed and practiced later. New targets can be set and practice resumed.
Cognitive theories of learning
Kohler used chimpanzees to show his concept.
A chimpanzee was placed in a cage with a box, a banana was hung from the roof of the cage. The chimp could reach the banana only by putting the box underneath the banana and standing on it. One one in seven chimpanzee was able to solve this problem without help. Problem-solving of this kind involves memory because chimpanzees who had previous experiences of boxes seemed to be able to solve the problem quicker.
A chimpanzee was placed in a cage with a box, a banana was hung from the roof of the cage. The chimp could reach the banana only by putting the box underneath the banana and standing on it. One one in seven chimpanzee was able to solve this problem without help. Problem-solving of this kind involves memory because chimpanzees who had previous experiences of boxes seemed to be able to solve the problem quicker.
Many psychologists feel that there are intervening variables (mental process occurring between the stimulus being received and the response. Eg. Taking into account your opponents movement in a badminton match.
Cognitive theories are concerned with thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain responses. Trial error does not take place in the cognitive theory. This is known as insight learning (problem-solving involving memory. Previous experiences are used to help solve new problem.
Learning takes into account the environment and what this means to use as individuals. Eg. A Cricketer recognises that certain parts of the pitch play slower than another, so they adapt their performance to this.
In the Cognitive theory it is believed that we are continually receiving information from our surroundings and we work out what is happening using our memories and our previous knowledge and general understanding/perception. This is known as the Gestaltist theory (perceive an object as a whole rather than a collection of parts).
When we think about teaching methods, the cognitive theory supports the whole practice teaching. Playing a game to enable the participants to understand what is required will be more effective than learning skills separately.
If young children are given lots of sporting experiences it may help their future learning and motor developments, as the child will be able to draw on these experiences to understand a problem and then solve it, gaining insight into the learning process.
Example -
A defender in football is spoken to and has the idea of zonal defence explained to him, understanding what is required of them and when to play the tactic.
Cognitive theories are concerned with thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain responses. Trial error does not take place in the cognitive theory. This is known as insight learning (problem-solving involving memory. Previous experiences are used to help solve new problem.
Learning takes into account the environment and what this means to use as individuals. Eg. A Cricketer recognises that certain parts of the pitch play slower than another, so they adapt their performance to this.
In the Cognitive theory it is believed that we are continually receiving information from our surroundings and we work out what is happening using our memories and our previous knowledge and general understanding/perception. This is known as the Gestaltist theory (perceive an object as a whole rather than a collection of parts).
When we think about teaching methods, the cognitive theory supports the whole practice teaching. Playing a game to enable the participants to understand what is required will be more effective than learning skills separately.
If young children are given lots of sporting experiences it may help their future learning and motor developments, as the child will be able to draw on these experiences to understand a problem and then solve it, gaining insight into the learning process.
Example -
A defender in football is spoken to and has the idea of zonal defence explained to him, understanding what is required of them and when to play the tactic.
Social learning theory/observational learning theory
Human behaviour is copied from observing others. A child copies the actions, behaviours and attitudes of their elders, or those they view in a high status. Significant others. are more likely to be copied than those who we regard as relatively unimportant.
Humans seek acceptance from others, and like this acceptance and to be part of a group. Humans observe and copy the behaviour of a group as it helps us to feel part of the group and become socially accepted.
When we copy skills being performed by others, we are motivated to succeed be accepted by others. When learning motor skills the coach/teacher can be seen as the significant other and therefore likely to be copied.
The person being observed is the model. The amount of learning that takes place is not only dependant on what is seen, but who the model is. Social learning is not just about imitating actions, but adopting morale judgements and patterns of social organisation.
Banduras 1961 study exposed children to a display of adult aggression (towards a life-sized doll). This occurred in isolation. When each child was given similar opportunities to imitate this behaviour, many of the children showed patterns of behaviour similar to those they had observed in the adults. Important points form this study:
1 - How appropriate the behaviour is according to social norms affect the likelihood of them being copied (ie. aggressive male models more likely to be copied than aggressive female models).
2 - The relevance of the behaviour. Boys are more likely to repeated the aggressive behaviour than girls.
3 - How similar the model to the Childs age and gender was impact the replication of the action.
4- Warm and friendly adults are more likely to imitated by children.
5 - Models whose behaviour is reinforced by signifiant others are more likely to be copied.
6 - More powerful/stronger models more likely to be copied.
7 - Consistency of the behaviour is important and more likely to be copied.
Humans seek acceptance from others, and like this acceptance and to be part of a group. Humans observe and copy the behaviour of a group as it helps us to feel part of the group and become socially accepted.
When we copy skills being performed by others, we are motivated to succeed be accepted by others. When learning motor skills the coach/teacher can be seen as the significant other and therefore likely to be copied.
The person being observed is the model. The amount of learning that takes place is not only dependant on what is seen, but who the model is. Social learning is not just about imitating actions, but adopting morale judgements and patterns of social organisation.
Banduras 1961 study exposed children to a display of adult aggression (towards a life-sized doll). This occurred in isolation. When each child was given similar opportunities to imitate this behaviour, many of the children showed patterns of behaviour similar to those they had observed in the adults. Important points form this study:
1 - How appropriate the behaviour is according to social norms affect the likelihood of them being copied (ie. aggressive male models more likely to be copied than aggressive female models).
2 - The relevance of the behaviour. Boys are more likely to repeated the aggressive behaviour than girls.
3 - How similar the model to the Childs age and gender was impact the replication of the action.
4- Warm and friendly adults are more likely to imitated by children.
5 - Models whose behaviour is reinforced by signifiant others are more likely to be copied.
6 - More powerful/stronger models more likely to be copied.
7 - Consistency of the behaviour is important and more likely to be copied.
Teaching skills (Bandura 1977)
The process of observational learning:
When teaching skills, it is the demonstration process that is important. Bandura 1977 identified that copying/modelling can affect performance thorough four processes.
1 - Attention: To copy a demonstration the performer must pay attention, and focus on the important cues. The amount of attention paid will be influenced by the perceived attractiveness of the the model, the competence of the model and the status of the model. Personal characteristics (personal attention span) and the incentives that are present are also important.
2 - Retention: The observer must be able to remember the model that is shown. Creating a mental picture of the process is important. Mental rehearsal can improve retention of the mental image.
3 - Motor reproduction: The observer must be physically able to repeat the skill being shown. It is vital that what is being seen/demonstrated matches the capabilities of the observer. Feedback should be given in practices to help improve the skill.
4 - Motivation: The level of motivation of the observer is important, in order for them to copy the performance well. External reinforcement of the model will help to increase motivation to copy it.
When teaching skills, it is the demonstration process that is important. Bandura 1977 identified that copying/modelling can affect performance thorough four processes.
1 - Attention: To copy a demonstration the performer must pay attention, and focus on the important cues. The amount of attention paid will be influenced by the perceived attractiveness of the the model, the competence of the model and the status of the model. Personal characteristics (personal attention span) and the incentives that are present are also important.
2 - Retention: The observer must be able to remember the model that is shown. Creating a mental picture of the process is important. Mental rehearsal can improve retention of the mental image.
3 - Motor reproduction: The observer must be physically able to repeat the skill being shown. It is vital that what is being seen/demonstrated matches the capabilities of the observer. Feedback should be given in practices to help improve the skill.
4 - Motivation: The level of motivation of the observer is important, in order for them to copy the performance well. External reinforcement of the model will help to increase motivation to copy it.